The Ethics Of Dark Tourism

The Ethics Of Dark Tourism The Anne Frank Organisation (2006) states that in 2004, 936,000 visitors visited the house that used to be Anne Franks, a Jewish girl who among other Jews were murdered in the time of Hitlers fascism. Among this timeframe, Auschwitz, a concentration camp based in Poland which became a symbol of genocide, annually receives 750,000 visitors (Yuill, 2003) coming close to the annual 900,000 visitors to Dachau (Lippard, 1999). All these sites and many more which are similar, are what are called sites for dark tourism (Lennon and Foley, 2000), also known as Thanatourism (Seaton, 1996 cited in Ryan et al, 2005) and Black Spots (Rojek, 1997). This form of tourism is what Seaton (1999) defines as sites and attractions that are associated with deaths, acts of violence, scenes of death and crimes against humanity. With the popularity of this form of tourism growing within the horror tourism market (Tunbridge and Ashworth, 1996), the ethical issues surrounding it will need to be questioned. With the consumers and providers taking part in this growth of dark tourism, both their potentially contrasting ethical views towards dark tourism may be different. Whereas a providers means of preserving history is to charge people to maintain its upkeep, the consumers may see it as money making scheme in the expense of the deceased lives of the site. Whereas the providers means of letting people know its history is through interpretation of vulgar images, may seem unethically distasteful for consumers. Therefore, using Stone (2006)s shades of darkness spectrum as a tool for measuring different levels of dark tourism sites, these two main issues will be critically examined in depth, and in both the consumers and providers point of views to further understand the ethical dilemma of dark tourism. Dark tourism has often raised ethical debates about the ways in which leisure and pleasure are mixed with tragedy (Kempa and Strange, 2003), as many people think some sites for dark tourism is too sensitive to present it for the world to see. However, although this may be the case, it actually varies depending on the shade the site is supplying. This has been supported by Stone (2006) in which he believes that not all dark tourism sites and its supplies have the same degree of darkness and ethics. Stone (2006) believes that each site and what it supplies has its own degree of darkness, and depending on its criteria; it can be placed on what he refers as a darkest-lightest spectrum. On one side of the spectrum is what he termed lightest side of dark tourism. Sites belonging to this side of the spectrum tend to be fully commercial providers such as the London Dungeon, which Stone (2006) also term Dark Fun Factories, as its main aim may be more financial than educational. Stone (2006) further explains that although sites belonging to this side of the scale will be associated with death and suffering, it is not OF death and suffering. Therefore, sites at this lightest side will most likely be purposeful and entertainment based, with a lower degree of ethics surrounding it. However, on the other end of the spectrum are the darkest side of the spectrum, in which its criterias are completely the opposite of those on the lighter side. Stone (2006) explains that sites on the darkest side will be sites of death and suffering and its orientation will be to educate. Examples of these darker sites are which Wight (2005) class as primary sites, such as holocaust camps to sites of celebrity deaths, as sites on this side of the scale will be seen as authentic and non-purposeful, leading to a higher degree of ethical issues surrounding the sites at this side of the scale. One of these ethical issues is the notion of whether consumers should be charged to enter a site of death and with so much history. In novices and consumers eyes, it could be seen as unethical as they may see it as a means for providers to make profits in the expense of the deceased lives and history. Although this may be the case on sites within the lighter shade of the spectrum as it may be purely commercial, it is not always the case within the darker sites. Sites from the darker shade such as Auschwitz, the Gallipoli Anzac (Slade, 2003) and Robben Island prison (Shackley, 2001) are normally sites which are old and need continuous up keeping and staff. With this continuous maintenance, sites will need money to be able to continue to run its site and its historical contents. However, this also leads to the issue of how much. If a site charges just enough to afford the upkeep, then it may seem fair and ethical to do so. For example, according to Shackley (2001), the prison in Robben Island which Dann (1998) elaborates as a Dungeon of Death attraction, employs local people as tour guides, and their average weekly wage is  £10, which is the same amount as the entrance fees. However, if the entrance fees were to double, it will then be seen as profit making, thus, unethical as it is money making in expense of the past. By charging its consumers, it may also be a means of controlling how many consumers enter the site, as mass consumption of the site may lead to deliberate sanctification and loss of original identity of the site. Strange and Kempa (2003) agrees with this and further states that the commodification of history for mass consumption frequently leads to the trivialization of the site, and in turn causes deliberate sanctification of its history, as well as the loss of original purpose of why the site was built. An example of this happening is shown in the site of Machu Picchu. Johnston (2006) explains how ever since Machu Picchu was named a World Heritage Site in 1983, over 500,000 visitors started visiting the site every year, and to prevent deliberate sanctification, an entrance fee of $20 was put up. This in turn not only did not limit the number of foreign consumers from visiting, but also pushed the local people out of its own heritage site as they could not afford the entrance fees. Johnston (2006) continues to explain that this has contributed to the mass replacement of indigenous people with tourists around the site, causing sanctification and trivialisation of the site, as the original culture of Machu Picchu was gone. Despite all the motives that the providers have for charging its consumers, its clearly shown that it needs to be managed efficiently in order for it to work. Consumers who are consuming the product as experience and integration (Ryan et al, 2005) may agree with the notion of charging as it may feel like they are giving back to the deceased lives and the history of the site. Lippard (1999) explains this as guilt tripping in which consumers of this typologies may feel guilty of what happened in the past and may want to contribute towards the history in order to feed their conscience. Consumers consuming as experience and integration (Ryan et al, 2005) may be more sentimental than consumers that are consuming as play (Ryan et al, 2005), as the typology of play consumers will come from a Psychocentric (Novelli et al, 2005) background in which they may visit frequently to lighter shades of dark tourism sites but rarely to sites of a darker shade. Elaborating from this, it could be possible that consumers consuming as play may not be used to the dark history of the sites and may be shocked of its contents and backgrounds surrounding the darker sites, thus, may welcome the sanctification of the sites but not the notion of charging. Frequent happenings of this emotion tend to happen in what Ryan et al (2005) called Grey tourism supply, in which Ryan et al (2005) explains this theory as consumers with low, or no interest and knowledge in death and tragedy visits an intended dark tourism site. In this situation, a consumer may not be aware of the dark historical contents of the site as they would not have previous knowledge due to its lack of interest, but upon arriving to the intended site and knowing its gore details, they may instantly be repulsed and shocked. However, this is rare as Seaton (1999) believes that dark tourism is consumer demand rather than attraction demand, explaining that if it was not from the high interests and demand from the audience, there will not be the dark sector of tourism. To some extent, Seaton (1999) may be correct and that the main reason for the existence of dark tourism could be from the high demands for dark tourism. However, for this to happen, the presentation of the sites may also be blamed for the high popularity of dark tourism. This is because Walter et al (1995) explains that even when consumers are interested in death and tragedies, for tragedies to be given a real meaning, it needs to have a context by explanation, and sometimes through the personal stories of those people who has been caught up in it. This has been previously mentioned using an example from one of the darker sites of Robben Island. Shackley (2001) states that the prison site in Robben Island located in South Africa, employs ex prisoners that used to be held there. These ex prisoners are now acting as tour guides for its consumers, repeatedly telling each group of consumers their own personal experience of when they were held in the cells. Shackley (2001) continues to ex plain that the emotional welfare of the guides had not been considered and many of the guides felt obliged to continue with its employment due to lack of employment elsewhere. Although Walter et al (1995) did explain that consumers are interested in personal story telling, but ethically, should stories as sensitive as this be told repeatedly and personally from the own mouths of the ex prisoners? This may not only be ethically wrong, but also morally wrong. Blom (2000) agrees with this and states that interpretation as personal as this should be interpreted though technology such as information points within the sites. However, despite this, providers within the darker sites may not see it in the same way. Providers could argue that employees such as ex prisoners are getting paid and that they decide to be employed in this job role voluntarily. Providers could also argue that story telling from the mouths of people who have been caught up within the history of the sites are more rel iable and feasible than technology. This may be because stories that will be told from someone who has actually experienced and been there, may infact reduce the exaggeration of the contents of the history and stories, as well as being less biased than if technology was to tell it. By interpreting using technology, there could be a high chance that the information recorded into the technology is from someone with no relations to the site, thus, gives consumers wrong information. Also, this method of tour guides for interpretation may actually further benefit both the providers and consumers, as if the consumers had to ask a question about the site and its history, it can be answered immediately by the tour guides, delaying the time in which the consumers may form its own answers and judgements about the site. The views of the darker site providers in employing tour guides may also be the same for the views for providers of the lighter shade of dark tourism, as it may be required and expected by consumers to have someone to guide through the lighter sites, e.g. the fun factories (Stone, 2006). However, an implication that can arise from this is that within the lighter shade of dark tourism, the tour guides may exaggerate the actual history and stories behind the site in order to manipulate the consumers attention and encourage repeat business. Manipulation of consumers attention can also be done by the movement of original objects. For lighter shades of tourism sites to do this may be accepted, as previously mentioned before; Stone (2006) explains that sites of a lighter shade tend to promote any materials in order to attract business, thus, attracting profits. However, if a site of a darker shade decides to do this, the circumstances will change and it will become unethically wrong. For example, Wight (2005) states that in Auschwitz, the famous signage that read Work will set you free was moved from its original position to a location near the end of the tour to create a high point for consumers to reach a controversial conclusion to the experience. This can be a form of manipulation as Carnegie (2006) states that some sites do intentionally move objects in order to interpret the displays to contain central, recognisable, emotional and generic truths to the local audiences. This raises an ethical dilemma, as although prov iders may see nothing wrong with this as controversial conclusion may leave its consumers feeling the pain and tragedies of the past, but the ethics of this makes it unfair and unauthentic for its consumers. The main purpose in why consumers visit places of dark tourism in the first place is because they may want to experience the real truth behind the sites first hand, and thus travelled to the site to get this experience. However, when providers moves objects around to help stimulate consumers minds, it is made unreal as it is not how the history says it was, but how the providers want it to be. By moving objects, bits of history gets moved as well, and as time moves on and nobody moves it back to its original place, the origin and bits of history of it are forgotten, hence the deliberate sanctification of some sites and the movement of sites within the shade spectrum. The phenomenon of dark tourism is a difficult and delicate field to understand, but one aspect of it that is most understood is that it is increasingly growing in popularity, with thousands of consumers flocking worldwide to see these sites of tragedy. However, the ethics of visiting sensitive sites such as these are also growing, as questions such as whether to show or not to show, and whether to charge or not to charge are often questioned in both the providers and consumers point of views. To show these sites of tragedies may cause exploitation of local people as well as deliberate sanctification of the sites and its history, but to not to show, our history may be denied to us. By understanding the ethicalities of dark tourism, it will help in preserving its history and sites, so that it can then be better managed and better preserved and presented for the future. This in turn reduces the risk of exploitation of the sites and the way different typologies of consumers think. However, ethical issues do not stop at the grounds of the consumers and its providers, the sensitivity of the tour guides are also needed to be explored. As discussed previously, tour guides such as ex prisoners are sometimes obliged to relive their experience repeatedly in order for consumers to know the history. Although this may be one of the effective methods of telling history, it is important to consider the welfare of these tour guides, as the repetitive telling of their own experience may in turn contribute to further unethical dilemmas. Therefore, maybe to finally conclude on the ethics of dark tourism, it may be possible to state that ethical issues will always continue to exist around dark tourism, as long dark tourism itself exists too. However, the importance of the consideration of the ethicalities of dark tourism cannot be understated, and both consumers and providers may want to work together, if in the future, we still would like to know about our history through the form of tourism instead through textbooks and education.

Leadership Essay -- Communication, Accountability

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In this section of the paper, I will discuss current relevant literary articles that are related to ineffective leader skills, effective leadership skills, and inadequate communication skills. These scholarly references will show how others are dealing with the issues of ineffective leadership skill. It will also illustrate what can be done to improve poor leadership behavior. By reviewing these references, I will be able to help my organization become more successful. First, Allen and Dennis states leadership and accountability go hand in hand. This study shows that nurses are incompetent because they lack sufficient leadership skills. They do not have the ability and skills to manage with compassion and/or competence. Also, they do not empower their team to be sufficient. So why were they hired in the first place if they lacked the necessary skills to perform their jobs? Sometimes, organizations fill the opening because they are desperate to get help. But this causes hospitals to fail. When managers are ineffective, there is overall failure. Managers and nurses alike lose sight of their purpose because they are overworked and lack guidance from senior management. They are told to work harder and smarter but do not have the necessary tools to perform their jobs successfully. By providing efficient training and tools, these nurses were able to provide better care and became more sufficient (Allen and Dennis, 2010). Another problem is ineffective communication. According Herman Aguinis, managers should listen to others, process the information and communicate effectively. They should also instill trust and provide proper direction to their team. As leaders, they should guide, develop and motivate to im... ...s fail to change their culture, they are bound to be unsuccessful (Want, 2006). Finally, according to Wilkins there are more than 11 million employees working in the field of healthcare services. To retain these employees, leaders should be equipped to keep these employees motivated. A national study was done in 2003 through 2004 by Healthcare@Work showed healthcare employees have the lowest level of commitment to their job. The study indicated that healthcare managers are lacking the necessary leadership skills that keep employees committed and motivated. The study also showed that healthcare organizations should look deeper into its management culture and rethink the effectiveness of its current leaders. Healthcare@Work found that challenges in the workplace if ineffective leadership and what steps needs to be done to improve this problem (Wilkins, 2004).

Higher Education Essay

The report is based on information and impressions which the delegation obtained during the study tour. Information was also gathered from sources such as the websites of the organisations and institutions visited and from agencies including the National Office of Overseas Skills Recognition (NOOSR) in Australia, World Education Services (WES) in the USA, IAU and UNESCO/IAU among others. At several places in the text, sources have been specifically mentioned. An additional list of sources can be found in the appendices. 3 The report describes the system of education in India and the quality assurance system. Chapter 1 introduces the administration of the school system and the organisation of primary, secondary and higher secondary education, while Chapter 2 provides information about technical and vocational education. Chapter 3 outlines the system of higher education by reviewing the institutional structure with a discussion of both public and private education. Information on degree structure and grading systems is included, as well as examples of some bachelor degree programmes. In Chapter 4, teacher training at higher secondary level and at university level is described. Chapter 5 presents India’s response to globalisation in the higher education sector. The last chapter deals with the quality assurance work in education, both at secondary and higher level. Impressions and reflections about the education system and how it functions are incorporated into the report in frames where appropriate. Country Profile India is one of the world’s oldest civilisations, dating back to 2,500 B. C. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded the country in about 1,500 B. C. ; their merger with the earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursion starting in the eighth century and Turkish in the twelfth century were followed by those of European traders, beginning in the late fifteenth century. By the nineteenth century, Great Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru helped end British colonialism through non-violent resistance. India achieved independence in 1947. The Republic of India was established in 1947 and comprises 32 states and Union Territories, the latter controlled by the central government. The country covers about 3. 3 million square kilometres with a population of 1. 029 billion and dominates southern Asia. It is slightly larger than one-third the size of the United States. India is home to 17% of the world’s total population, accommodated in an area that is 2. 4% of the world’s total area. India has the world’s twelfth largest economy and the third largest in Asia behind Japan and China, with a total GDP of around $570 billion. Services, industry and agriculture account for 50. 7%, 26. 6% and 22. 7% of GDP respectively. The United States is India’s largest trading partner. Bilateral trade in 2003 was $18. 1 billion. There are some 16 official major languages and 844 dialects. Among these languages, English enjoys associate status, but is the most important language for national, political, and commercial communication. Hindi is the national language and primary tongue of 30% of the people. The other official languages are Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Sanskrit. Hindustani is a popular variant of Hindi/Urdu spoken widely throughout northern India but is not an official language. Hinduism (80. 5%), Islam (13. 4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikh (1. 9%) are the major religions in the country. The literacy rate is 52% (of the total population of age 15 or older). 4 Chapter 1 General Education Administration of Education The central and the state governments have joint responsibility for education, with freedom for the state governments to organise education within the national framework of education. Educational policy planning is under the overall charge of the central Ministry of Human Resource Development which includes the Department of Elementary Education and Literacy and the Department of Secondary and Higher Education. The Ministry is guided by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) which is the national level advisory body. The education ministers of all the different states are members of the board. The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) (1961) defines the National Frame Curriculum for classes I – XII. It also functions as a resource centre in the field of school development and teacher education. State Councils of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) are the principal research and development institutions in all the states. At secondary level, school boards at state level affiliate schools and set examination standards in accordance with the national framework. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and Council for Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) cover all India besides the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). National Policy on General Education Under the national constitution, education was a state matter until 1976. The central government could only provide guidance to the states on policy issues. In 1976 the constitution was amended to include education on the concurrent list. The initial attempts of designing a National Education Policy were made in 1968 but it was only in 1986 that India as a whole had a uniform National Policy on Education. The National Policy on Education 1986, modified in 1992, defines the major goals for elementary education as universal access and enrolment, universal retention of children up to 14 years and substantial improvement in the quality of education. The National Policy of Education of 1992 also aims at vocationalisation of secondary education and greater use of educational technology. The policy has been accompanied by several programmes such as the District Primary Education Program (DPEP) launched in 1994 and the National Campaign for Education for All (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) launched in 2001/2. A proposed bill on the right to education (draft, November 2005) stresses the right of all children from age 6 until their 15th birthday to receive elementary education either in school or non-formal education (NFE). The Indian government is preparing the universalisation of secondary education (USE). The main aim is to provide high quality secondary education to all Indian adolescents up to the age of 16 by 2015, and senior secondary education up to the age of 18 by 2020. 5 Crucial problems in India are teacher absenteeism, noted by UNESCO in 2005; high teacherpupil ratios; and inadequate teaching materials and facilities, particularly in rural areas. At the other end of the scale, children attending urban schools, especially middle and upper class children in private schools, are subjected to extreme competition from a very early age in order to qualify for admission into the best schools. In 1979-80, the Government of India, Department of Education launched a programme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) for children of 6-14 years age group, who cannot join regular schools – drop-outs, working children, children from areas without easy access to schools etc. The initial focus of the scheme was on ten educationally backward states. Later, it was extended to urban slums, and hilly, tribal and desert areas in other states. Source: – UNESCO: India, updated August 2003 and Annual Report 2004/5, Ministry of Human Resource Development, India (overview). – Newsletter, October-December 2005, International Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO. Learning without Burden, NCERT, 1993, reprinted 2004. – Annual report 2004/5, Ministry of Human Resource Development, India (annexes). School Education A uniform structure of school education, the 10+2 system, has been adopted by all the states and Union Territories (UTs) of India following the National Policy on Education of 1986. Elementary school, Class I – VIII, is recognised as the period of compulsory schooling, with the Constitutional amendment making education a fundamental right. A majority of the states and Union Territories (UTs) have introduced free education in classesI-XII. In states/UTs where education is not free for classes IX and above, the annual fee varies considerably. The pre-school covers two to three years. The elementary stage consists of a primary stage comprising Classes I-V (in some states I-IV), followed by a middle stage of education comprising Classes VI -VIII (in some states V-VIII or VI -VII). The minimum age for admission to Class I of the primary school is generally 5+ or 6+. The secondary stage consists of Classes IX-X (in some states VIII-X), and a senior secondary stage of schooling comprising classes XI-XII in all states. In some states/UTs these classes are attached to universities/colleges. The number of working days of school education in a year is generally more than 200 days in all the states/UTs. Participation in primary and secondary education The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), which indicates the number of children actually enrolled in elementary schools as a proportion of child population in the 6-14 years age group, has increased progressively since 1950-51, rising from 32. 1% to 82. 5% in 2002-03, according to statistics published by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in India. The rate of increase in GER of girls has been higher than that of boys. The dropout rate at the primary level (Classes I-V) declined from 39% in 2001-02 to 34. 9% in 2002-03. However the GER only covers 61% of children from classes VI to VIII. 6 In 2002/3 the dropout rate was estimated at 34. 9% at the end of lower primary classes and 52. 8% at the end of upper primary. The dropout rate was 62. 6% at the end of secondary school (Class X). There are wide disparities among the different states in the number of children completing primary and secondary school from less than 20% to more than 80%, according to the central statistics from the Ministry of Human Resource Development. Source – Selected Educational Statistics 2002-03. Provisional. Ministry of Human Resource Development, India – Annual Report 2004/5. Ministry of Human Resource Development, India – Secondary Education. Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, India (information on the Department’s website) National Curricula. The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) formulated the first Curriculum Framework in 1975 as a recommendation to the individual states. NCERT was accorded the responsibility of developing a binding National Curriculum Framework through the National Policy on Education (NPE) (1986). NCERT reviews the curriculum every five years on the basis of consultations within the whole school sector. The core areas of the curriculum are common. Teaching of English is usually compulsory in classes VI-X in most of the states/UTs. NCERT published a New National Curriculum framework in 2005. The New National Curriculum will be introduced in textbooks in three phases: Phase one, 2006-07: classes I, III, VI, IX and XI. Phase two, 2007-08: classes II, IV, VII, X and XII Phase three, 2008-09: classes V and VIII NCERT has gradually been changing the curriculum from traditional information provision to be more learner-oriented and competence-based. National Curriculum Framework 2000 The National Curriculum Framework 2000 operates with the concept of the Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs) identifying certain essential levels of learning for each stage of school education. Pre-primary education The National Policy on Education defines the objective of early childhood care and education (ECCE) as being the total development of children in the age group 0-6 years. Early Childhood Education (ECE) or pre-primary education (2 years), part of the ECCE, shall prepare children for school. Teaching at this stage, according to the National Curriculum Framework, comprises group activities, play–way techniques, language games, number games and activities directed at promoting socialisation and environmental awareness among children. Formal teaching of subjects and reading and writing are prohibited. However, NCERT strongly criticised the actual pre-school programmes for exposing children to structured formal learning, often in 7 English with tests and homework, in the introductory notes to the new National Curriculum Framework 2005. The competition for the best education starts at a very early age. Newspapers from September 2005 in India report of tremendous pressure on three-year old children being prepared by their parents for nursery interviews and competing with a huge number of other children for places in the most prestigious private pre-schools. The newspapers report on private persons/institutes that offer help to parents in preparing their children for nursery interviews. Other newspapers report the need for psychological support for children having developed speaking difficulties after having been exposed to onerous preparation by their parents for nursery interviews. Primary education At the primary stage, emphasis is on the process of understanding, thinking and internalising. The National Curriculum contains the following subjects: Subject Language(s) Lower primary Classes I-II The mother tongue/regional language. Lower primary Classes III-V The mother tongue/regional language Upper primary Classes VI-VIII Three Languages — the mother tongue/the regional language, a modern Indian language and English All kind of creative activities including the child’s own creations Essentials of mathematics for every day activities, including geometry – Art education Mathematics Art of healthy and productive living Woven around the world of the learner Creative education, health and physical education, work education, value inculcation Integrated approach Environmental studies – Health and physical education – Science and technology Social sciences – Work education – Integrated approach to music, dance, drama, drawing and painting, puppetry, health and physical education, games and sports, yoga and productive work Experiences to help socio- emotional and cultural development with a realistic awareness and perception of phenomena occurring in the environment Games and sports, yoga, NCC and scouting and guiding Key concepts across all the disciplines of science, local and global concerns Social, political and economic situation of India and the world, including Indian cultural heritage. Academic skills social skills and civic competencies Agricultural and technological processes including participation in work situation Source: National Curriculum Framework 2000 8 In all language education programmes, the stress is placed on the ability to use the language in speech and in writing for academic purposes, at the workplace and in society in general. The duration of a class period may be around 40 minutes and, according to NCERT, the school year should be a minimum of 180 days, and â€Å"†¦A primary school should function for five hours a day out of which four hours may be set aside for instruction. For the upper primary and secondary schools, the duration of a school day should be six hours out of which five hours should be kept for instruction and the rest for the other routine activities. † Secondary education (2 years, grades IX-X) In grades IX-X the scheme of studies should include the following subjects: three languages (the mother tongue/the regional language, a modern Indian language and English), mathematics, science and technology, social sciences, work education, art education, health and physical education. Foreign languages such as Chinese, Japanese, Russian, French, German, Arabic, Persian and Spanish may be offered as additional options. The curriculum in mathematics should take into account both the learning requirement of learners who will leave school for working life, and of students who will pursue higher education. According to the NECRT Secondary School Curriculum 2002-2004 (Vol.1, Main Subjects) the suggested number of weekly periods per subject in grade X is as follows: Subject Language I Language II Mathematics Science and technology Social science Work education or pre-vocational education Art education Suggested number of periods in grade X 7 6 7 9 9 3 + 2 to 6 periods outside school hours 2 The boards, however, according to NCERT, often offer limited or no optional courses: two languages (one of which is English), mathematics, science and social sciences are the typical examination subjects. A few boards encourage students to choose an optional course from a range that includes economics, music and cookery. Higher secondary/Senior secondary education (2 years, grades XI–XII) The curriculum at this stage is divided into an academic stream and a vocational stream. Academic stream The objectives of academic courses are to promote problem-solving abilities and convey higher levels of knowledge. The curriculum at this stage comprises foundation courses and elective courses. Foundation courses consist of (i) language and literature, (ii) work education, and (iii) health and physical education, games and sports. The study of language prepares a student to both learn and use language in the classroom, the community and the workplace. The choice of the language to be studied is decided by the learner. Work education includes e. g. developmental projects in a village or city. Generic Vocational Courses (GVC) aim at developing employment-related generic skills regardless of the persons’ occupations. The student should choose three elective courses out of the subjects 9 prescribed by the boards. Elective courses may include bridging courses between the academic and vocational streams. The list of courses may include modern Indian languages, Sanskrit, classical European languages and their literatures, English (academic and specialised), other foreign languages, subjects in the sciences and mathematics, computer science, accountancy, business studies, engineering, political science, history, sociology, psychology, philosophy, fine arts and others. NCERT prescribes that courses should be listed together without dividing them into mutually exclusive groups. Nonetheless, several boards restrict the combinations in the form of a ‘science stream’, ‘arts stream’ and ‘commerce stream’. Some schools tailor their classes to medical and engineering courses. Universities restrict admissions based on the subjects and combinations of courses studied in the +2 stage. Sixty percent of the instructional time is devoted to the instruction of elective subjects and forty percent to the foundation course. Vocational stream The introduction of the vocational stream was recommended by the central Kothari Commission (1964-66). The National Policy on Education, 1986 (revised 1992) set a target of twenty-five percent of higher secondary students in vocational courses by 1995. So far, enrolment is far below this. The courses for the vocational stream consist of: †¢ A language course †¢ A general foundation course †¢ Health and physical education, and †¢ Elective vocational courses Vocational education covers areas like agriculture, engineering and technology (including information and communication technology), business and commerce, home science, health and para-medical services and humanities. Language courses are organised to cover the grammatical structures and additional vocabulary particular to the trade or vocation. The general foundation course for the vocational stream comprises general studies, entrepreneurship development, environmental education, rural development and information and communication technology. Vocational electives are organised according to employment opportunities. Practical training is an essential component of the vocational courses, according to the National Curriculum Framework, with seventy percent of time devoted to vocational courses. The certificate issued should mention the competencies acquired and the credits earned. Organisation The organisation of teaching is based either on an annual or semester system. In most cases, a year’s course is divided into two parts to be covered in the two halves of an academic session in the annual system. Marks are accorded to a certain number of periods; the total mark is an average of marks accorded to the different parts of curriculum in an annual or semestrial examination (e. g. a paper corresponding to a 3-hour written examination). 10 The example below copied from the Senior School Curriculum 2007 (Central Board of Secondary Education) illustrates a typical curriculum (in history) and the maximum marks accorded to the different parts of the curriculum. History/Class XI Paper One Unit Part A – Ancient India 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 30. Total Introduction Paleolithic Cultures and Beginning of settled Life Harappan Civilization The Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Phase and Iron Age South and North-East India Religious traditions Mahajanapada Mauryas Society, Economy and Culture during Mauryan period Post-Mauryan India The age of India from Guptas and after The Society and Culture in the age of Guptas and Harsha †¦ Project Work 100 marks 8 4 8 8 5 2 10 4 10 6 6 8 8 †¦ †¦. 5 8 9 5 2 7 7 Time: 3 Hours Periods 100 Marks Marks. In the semester system, recommended by NCERT, students take a number of credit hours corresponding to their requirements and capacity, and at their own pace. However, only a few institutions have adopted the semester and credit system. National Curriculum Framework 2005 The National Curriculum Framework 2005 points out the need for plurality and flexibility within education while maintaining the standards of education in order to cover a growing variety of children. The Framework recommends that learning shifts away from rote methods and that the curriculum reduces and updates textbooks. Peace education is included as a dimension in education. The new curriculum proposes a broader spectrum of optional subjects, including the revalorisation of vocational options. Courses may be designed to offer optional modules, rather than trying to cover everything and overfilling courses too much. The National Curriculum Framework 2005 also proposes changes within the examination system (examinations for classes X and XII) allowing reasoning and creative abilities to replace memorisation. The children should be able to opt for different levels of attainment. Textbooks 11 Most states have legislated to create bodies for the preparation of syllabi and textbooks. The states have established various mechanisms for the preparation and approval of textual materials. However, a study in 2005, undertaken by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), of textbooks used in government schools (not following the CBSE syllabus) and in nongovernment schools (including social and religious schools) showed that many textbooks reinforce inequalities and neglect rural, tribal or female realities. According to NCERT’ Newsletter, in 2005, CABE proposed the institution of a National Textbook Council to monitor textbooks. Source: – National Curriculum Framework 2000, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT), India – National Curriculum Framework 2005, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT), India – Newsletter July 2005, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT), India – Senior School Curriculum 2007, Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), India, 2005 Examination and Assessment In all the states and Union Territories, public examinations are conducted at the end of classes X and XII by the respective State Boards of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education. Ministry of Human Resource Development has published a list of recognised state boards for secondary and higher secondary education. The minimum age for admittance to the Secondary School Examination generally varies from 14+ to 16+. The minimum age for Higher Secondary School Examinations varies from 16+ to 18+ years. Some states/UTs do not have an age restriction. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), established by a special resolution of the Government of India in 1929, prescribes examination conditions and the conduct of public examinations at the end of Standard X and XII. The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Delhi, was established in 1958 by the University of Cambridge, Local Examinations Syndicate as a self-financing national examination board. The Council conducts the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (Standard X) and the Indian School Certificate (Standard XII) examinations. CISCE affiliates schools using English as a medium of instruction. The title of the final qualification varies depending upon the examining body. The titles used by the central examining boards are: CBSE: †¢ All India Secondary School Certificate (Standard X). †¢ All India Senior School Certificate (Standard XII). 12 CISCE: †¢ Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE Standard X). †¢ Indian School Certificate (ISC Standard XII). †¢ Certificate of Vocational Education (CVE XII). Information from the procedure of the All India Senior School Certificate (Standard XII) (extract): The Board conducts examination in all subjects except General Studies, Work Experience, Physical and Health Education, which will be assessed internally by the schools based on cumulative records of students periodical achievements and progress during the year. In all subjects examined by the Board, a student will be given one paper each carrying 100 marks for 3 hours. However, in subjects requiring practical examination, there will be a theory paper and a practical examination as required in the syllabi and courses. A candidate may offer an additional subject that can be either a language at elective level or another elective subject as prescribed in the Scheme of Studies, subject to the conditions laid down in the Pass Criteria. A candidate will get the Pass Certificate of the Board, if he/she gets a grade higher than E in all subjects of internal assessment unless he/she is exempted. Failing this, result of the external examination will be withheld but not for a period of more than one year. In order to be declared as having passed the examination, a candidate shall obtain a grade higher than E (i. e. at least 33% marks) in all the five subjects of external examination in the main or at the compartmental examinations. The pass marks in each subject of external examination shall be 33%. In case of a subject involving practical work a candidate must obtain 33% marks in theory and 33% marks in practical separately in addition to 33% marks in aggregate in order to qualify in that subject. A candidate failing in two of the five subjects of external examination shall be placed in compartment in those subjects provided he/she qualifies in all the subjects of internal assessment. A candidate who has failed in the examination in the first attempt shall be required, to re-appear in all the subjects at the subsequent annual examination of the Board. A candidate who has passed the Senior School Certificate Examination of the Board may offer an additional subject as a private candidate provided the additional subject is provided in the Scheme of Studies and is offered within six years of passing the examination of the Board. A candidate who has passed an examination of the Board may reappear for improvement of performance in one or more subject(s) in the main examination in the succeeding year only; however, a candidate who has passed an examination of the Board under Vocational Scheme may reappear for improvement of performance in one or more subject{s) in the main examination in the succeeding year or in the following year provided he/she has not pursued higher studies in the mean time. He /she will appear as private candidate. Candidates who appear for improvement of performance will be issued only Statement of Marks reflecting the marks of the main examination as well as those of the improvement examination. Central Board of Secondary Education Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) is one of the three national boards of secondary education in India. CBSE has affiliated around 8,300 schools including government and independent 13 schools. It also affiliates schools in some 20 African and Asian countries. About 200 new schools are affiliated each year. Study teams conduct regular inspections of the affiliated institutions. CBSE has a central office and 6 regional offices. Permanent affiliation is obtained after a number of years. Affiliation is granted according to strict criteria. A list of affiliated schools can be found on CBSE’ s website: http://www. cbse. nic. in. The major objective is to prescribe conditions of examinations and conduct public examinations at the end of Classes X and XII and to grant certificates to successful candidates of the affiliated schools. All affiliated schools follow the national scheme of 10+2. Here is an example of testimonial for All India Senior School Certificate Examination from 2000: CBSE is regulated but not financed by the central government. Financing is assured by fees from the affiliated schools. CBSE accepts private candidates. CBSE develops its curriculum on the basis of the national curriculum framework. The curriculum is revised every 5 to 10 years. Two of the front line curriculum subjects are revised every year. According to CBSE, it strives notably to adapt current teaching methods and content of teaching to an innovative and creative society in the form of subjects such as functional English, bio-technology, entrepreneurship, life skills education, and disaster management. An important objective is the destressing of education, including no homework or examinations in grades I and II and only achievement reports in grades III-V. Information technology is compulsory in grades IX +X. Language studies include a possible 27 different languages besides Hindi and English. One teacher may teach four subjects up to grade X. The board uses the term learner (for student) with emphasis on the learner’s role in learning. Two subjects undergo a performance analysis (marks, questions, learning) each year to cope with poor performance. 14 Examination is monitored and organised to avoid fraud. CBSE issues duplicates of certificates under certain conditions. CBSE also organises in-service training of teachers and special programmes for new principals. Grading Both Standard X and XII are normally marked on a percentage basis. The minimum passmark varies depending upon the subject. According to the UK NARIC, the following marking scheme is used in most states for the Standard XII examinations, in comparison with that used by the central boards. Performance CBSE assessment 85%+, 80-85%, 70- Excellent, Superior, Very A1-A2, B1 80% good 60% – 70% Good B2 50% – 60% Satisfactory C1 40% – 50% Average C2 35% – 40% Pass D Percentages Source: India, International Comparisons, UK NARIC CISCE One, two, three Four Five Six seven Documents The pass-document is issued by the relevant Board of Secondary Education. It shows the type of programme (academic or vocational), the subjects passed and the marks obtained out of total marks as well as the aggregate marks, percentage obtained, and result as well as the overall grade/division. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) National Institute of Open Schooling (previously known as the National Open School) was established in November 1989 as an autonomous registered society. The institute provides basic programs such as secondary education courses and senior secondary education courses on an open education basis. NIOS conducts examinations twice a year and candidates can appear in one, two or more subjects. Credits are accumulated until the certification criteria are fulfilled. NIOS has at its disposal a network of accredited study centres all over India providing support to learners. Source – India, International Comparisons, UK NARIC (Website) – Secondary Education. Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, India (information on the Department’s website) 15 Islamic Education India also has a system of Islamic education. Several different sects have their own schools where they teach Islamic subjects and Arabic to mainly (but not only) Muslim children.

Ethics And Its Impact On Business Ethics - 1339 Words

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